Affirmative action
The 13th, 14th and 15th amendments of the American Constitution were meant to forbid racial discrimination and ensure an equal protection under the law for all citizens in the USA. Nevertheless, this was not enough to avoid prejudice referring to race or ethnic origin, age, gender, or religion.
– In 1961: A Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity was created by President J.F. Kennedy.
– In 1964: A Civil Rights Act forbid racial discrimination on the part of large private employers and in public accommodation.
– In 1965: Voting Rights Act, executive order issued by President Lyndon Johnson.
– In 1967: Gender was taken into account in addition to the other protected categories.
– In 1972: Equal Opportunity Act, amendments to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 signed by President Nixon. A commission was created to enforce the plans set up.
In 1989, Affirmative action was restricted by the Supreme Court. Stricter limits were defined for programs and the use of minority set-asides was outlawed when proof of past discrimination was not found.
In 1996 in California, all government agencies and institutions were forbidden, by a new legislation, to give preferences on the grounds of sex or race. Attempts have been made by legislation or judicial action to change policies in other states as well.
Affirmative action is currently a burning issue in the USA.

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